“MPS-002 DEC 2023 COMPLETE Solved Previous Year Paper”

1. Critically examine the feminist view of state and its relevance to International Relations.

Feminist View of the State and Its Relevance to International Relations

Overview of Feminist Perspectives on the State

Feminist theories critique traditional views of the state, arguing that these views often reinforce patriarchal structures. Key points include:

1. Patriarchal Structure: Feminists contend that states are inherently patriarchal institutions that extend societal gender inequalities into political spheres.
2. Exclusion of Women: The traditional definitions and roles assigned to political actors privilege men, often excluding women from significant political engagement.
3. Gender and Power: Feminists argue that power dynamics within states reflect broader gender inequalities, where male experiences dominate the narrative, further marginalizing women’s contributions.
4. Critique of Realism: Feminism critiques Realist theories for their state-centric focus on security, which often neglects women’s security and broader social relations.
5. Intersectionality of Patriarchy: Patriarchy interacts with various social systems and cultures, affecting the dynamics between men and women across different historical contexts.
6. Redefining Security: Feminists advocate for a redefinition of security that includes social justice and addresses the specific needs of women.
7. Historical Context: The evolution of patriarchy is seen as intertwined with the development of state systems, where historical contexts perpetuate gender inequalities.
8. Gendered War Narratives: Wars are viewed as gendered activities, where the roles of women are often rendered secondary, reinforcing stereotypes and unequal power relations.

Relevance to International Relations

Feminist critiques have significant implications for International Relations (IR):

1. Broadening Security Concepts: Feminists argue for a more inclusive understanding of security that prioritizes human security over state security, emphasizing the need for non-militaristic solutions.
2. Challenging Militarism: The traditional militaristic approach to national security is challenged, advocating for a focus on social relations and the impacts of conflict on women.
3. Addressing Gendered Impacts of War: Feminists highlight that war affects men and women differently, advocating for policies that recognize this disparity.
4. Reforming International Structures: Calls for reforms in international institutions to better represent women’s voices and interests are prevalent, as current structures often reinforce patriarchal norms.
5. Political and Legal Rights for Women: Feminists emphasize the importance of political and legal rights for women as integral to achieving gender equity in international contexts.
6. Critique of Nationalism: Nationalism is examined through a feminist lens, revealing how it can perpetuate gendered violence and exclusion.
7. Role of Non-State Actors: The relationship between state and non-state actors is crucial, with feminists advocating for greater recognition of diverse voices in IR.
8. Feminist Peace Advocacy: Peace is defined not merely as the absence of conflict but as a state where women can control their autonomy, emphasizing the importance of addressing domestic and social violence as part of peacebuilding.

Conclusion

The feminist critique of the state presents a transformative view that reshapes the understanding of power, security, and international relations. By addressing the inherent gender biases in traditional theories and advocating for a more inclusive approach, feminist perspectives offer valuable insights into creating equitable political and social systems.

2. How is underdevelopment different from development ? Discuss the basic features of the theory of underdevelopment.

Underdevelopment vs. Development

Differences Between Underdevelopment and Development

Underdevelopment and development represent two distinct states of economic and social progress. Here are key differences:

1. Economic Growth: Development typically involves sustained economic growth, while underdevelopment is characterized by stagnant or declining economies.
2. Standard of Living: Development leads to improved living standards, whereas underdeveloped regions often face poverty and inadequate living conditions.
3. Infrastructure: Developed nations enjoy advanced infrastructure (transportation, communication), while underdeveloped countries struggle with basic infrastructure.
4. Access to Services: Development ensures access to education, health care, and sanitation, but underdeveloped regions often lack these essential services.
5. Technological Advancement: Development is associated with high levels of technology use, while underdeveloped countries have limited access to modern technology.
6. Global Integration: Developed countries are integrated into the global economy, while underdeveloped countries may be marginalized.
7. Political Stability: Development often correlates with stable governance, whereas underdevelopment is frequently linked to political instability and conflict.
8. Dependency: Underdeveloped nations often rely on foreign aid and investment, while developed nations tend to be self-sufficient.

Basic Features of the Theory of Underdevelopment

The theory of underdevelopment seeks to explain the persistent economic and social conditions in less developed countries, focusing on the following aspects:

1. Historical Context: It emphasizes the historical exploitation of colonies by developed nations, leading to long-term economic disadvantages for these countries.
2. Dependency: Underdevelopment theory posits that underdeveloped countries remain dependent on developed nations for capital, technology, and markets, perpetuating their economic challenges.
3. Neo-Colonialism: It argues that even after colonial rule, developed countries maintain control over developing nations through economic and political means, creating a neo-colonial relationship.
4. Technological Inequality: The lack of access to advanced technology is a major barrier to economic growth in underdeveloped countries, which are often reliant on developed nations for technological advancements.
5. Global Interdependence: The theory highlights a complex interdependence where both developed and underdeveloped nations rely on each other, but the benefits are skewed in favor of the former.
6. Critique of Modernization Theory: It challenges traditional modernization theories that suggest that all countries can develop following a linear path similar to Western nations.
7. Role of Capital: It stresses that the transfer of capital and resources from developed to underdeveloped countries is impeded, hindering their economic progress.
8. Social Structures: The theory also examines how social and political structures in underdeveloped countries can hinder development, including corruption and lack of governance.

The theory of underdevelopment provides a framework for understanding the systemic issues faced by less developed countries, challenging simplistic views of economic growth and development.

3. Examine the North-South divide in global environmental crisis. 

Examining the North-South Divide in the Global Environmental Crisis

Overview of the North-South Divide

The North-South divide refers to the economic and social disparities between the developed nations (the North) and the developing countries (the South). This divide significantly impacts global environmental crises, as the consumption patterns and resource management differ vastly between these regions.

Key Factors Contributing to the Divide:

1. Resource Consumption: The developed North, which comprises 23% of the global population, earns 85% of the world’s income and consumes a disproportionate share of resources. For instance, energy consumption per capita is 280 in the USA, compared to as low as 12 in Africa.
2. Economic Inequality: The economic structures in the South often lead to resource depletion, as they are forced to surrender their resources to the wealthier North.
3. Environmental Degradation: The unsustainable consumption patterns of the North directly contribute to environmental degradation, affecting the South that relies on these resources for survival.
4. Political Dynamics: The global political landscape often sidelines the interests of the South, limiting their ability to participate in significant decision-making processes regarding environmental policies.
5. Disaster Vulnerability: Developing countries face higher risks from natural disasters due to inadequate infrastructure and resources to manage crises effectively.

Implications of the North-South Divide on Environmental Issues

The divide has profound implications for global environmental policies and practices.

Consequences:

1. Sustainable Development Challenges: Efforts to achieve sustainable development are hindered by the economic and environmental disparities between the North and South.
2. Resource Scarcity: The growing scarcity of resources exacerbates tensions between nations, potentially leading to conflicts over access to essential resources such as water and arable land.
3. Migration Issues: Economic deprivation and environmental degradation in the South lead to significant refugee flows, creating socio-political challenges in receiving countries.
4. Ineffective Global Policies: Initiatives like the New International Economic Order (NIEO) aimed at addressing these inequities have struggled to achieve meaningful success.
5. Intergenerational Equity: The focus on immediate consumption in the North undermines the rights of future generations in the South, leading to long-term resource depletion.

Efforts to Address the Divide

Several strategies have been proposed and implemented to mitigate the effects of the North-South divide in environmental crises.

Notable Initiatives:

1. Investment Promotion: The UNIDO has worked to foster North-South investment that supports sustainable practices in developing countries.
2. Disaster Preparedness: Organizations like the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) provide early warning systems to help mitigate the impacts of natural disasters in vulnerable regions.
3. Ozone Protection Efforts: Global treaties like the Montreal Protocol have successfully addressed environmental issues, showcasing the potential of international cooperation.
4. Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): The UN’s SDGs aim to promote equity and environmental sustainability across both North and South.
5. Civil Society Engagement: Increasing involvement of civil society in environmental governance has emphasized grassroots approaches to resource management and conservation.

Conclusion

The North-South divide is a critical factor in understanding and addressing global environmental crises. The stark differences in consumption patterns, economic capabilities, and political influence necessitate a concerted effort to bridge this gap through sustainable practices, equitable resource management, and inclusive policies. Addressing these disparities is essential for fostering a more sustainable and equitable global community.

4. Explain the Asian and African approaches for regional cooperation.

Asian and African Approaches to Regional Cooperation

Asian Approaches

1. Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN): Established on August 8, 1967, ASEAN aims to accelerate economic growth, social progress, and cultural development in Southeast Asia. It promotes regional peace and stability through respect for justice and rule of law among member states.
2. Membership Expansion: ASEAN started with five countries and has expanded to ten, including Brunei, Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar, and Cambodia. This expansion reflects the organization’s commitment to regional integration and cooperation.
3. Decision-Making Structure: The highest decision-making body is the Meeting of the ASEAN Heads of State and Government, held annually, alongside the ASEAN Ministerial Meeting, which also occurs yearly.
4. Political and Security Cooperation: ASEAN emphasizes political dialogue and security cooperation aimed at enhancing regional resilience and stability. This includes agreements like the Treaty of Amity and Cooperation and the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) for security discussions.
5. Economic Cooperation: Initiatives such as the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) focus on trade and investment liberalization, promoting economic growth through cooperation among member states.
6. Cultural and Social Development: ASEAN fosters cultural exchanges and social development initiatives to strengthen community ties and mutual understanding among member countries.
7. Challenges: Political tensions, such as the India-Pakistan conflict affecting the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), demonstrate the complexity of achieving regional cooperation amid diverse political climates.
8. Incremental Dialogue: The ARF operates on the principle of incremental dialogue, allowing member states to discuss and improve political relationships over time, thereby enhancing regional security.

African Approaches

1. Group of 77 (G-77): This coalition of developing countries, including many from Africa, aims to promote collective bargaining power in global trade negotiations, emphasizing economic cooperation among member states.
2. Non-Aligned Movement (NAM): Many African nations are part of NAM, which seeks to promote peace and cooperation among countries that do not formally align with major power blocs, thereby enhancing their political and economic independence.
3. Regional Economic Communities (RECs): Various RECs, such as the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) and the Southern African Development Community (SADC), work to foster economic integration and political cooperation among member states.
4. African Union (AU): The AU promotes unity and cooperation among African countries, focusing on issues such as peace, security, and economic development.
5. Peace and Security Initiatives: The AU has established frameworks for conflict resolution and peacekeeping, addressing security challenges that hinder regional cooperation.
6. Interregional Cooperation: African nations engage in interregional cooperation frameworks to address shared challenges, such as climate change and economic development, enhancing solidarity among countries.
7. Cultural Initiatives: Similar to ASEAN, African nations emphasize cultural cooperation to foster understanding and solidarity among diverse ethnic and cultural groups across the continent.
8. Challenges: African regional cooperation often faces obstacles, including political instability, economic disparities, and differing national interests, which can complicate collective efforts.

In summary, both Asian and African approaches to regional cooperation emphasize economic growth, political stability, and cultural exchange while facing significant challenges related to political tensions and economic disparities.

5. Analyse the post-cold war challenges to international peace and security.

Post-Cold War Challenges to International Peace and Security

The end of the Cold War has led to a complex landscape of challenges affecting international peace and security. Below are the primary challenges identified in the documents.

1. Emergence of Ethnic Conflicts

• The collapse of communism has revived ancient ethnic hatreds and resentments, particularly evident in the former Yugoslavia and within the Russian Federation.
• The disintegration of states like Yugoslavia and the Soviet Union has resulted in violent ethnic conflicts, exemplified by the wars in Bosnia and Kosovo.

1. Multipolarity and Power Dynamics

• The post-Cold War era has shifted from a bipolar world to a more multipolar one, with the United States emerging as the primary power but facing challenges from other nations such as China and emerging economies.
• Analysts predict that the diffusion of economic power may lead to renewed competition and conflict among great powers, creating instability.

1. Challenges to Nation-States

• Post-Cold War dynamics have put significant pressure on the nation-state as the primary actor in international relations. The rise of multi-nation states has complicated governance and stability.
• Many newly independent states have struggled with internal divisions and demands for self-determination, leading to conflicts and instability in regions like Eastern Europe and Central Asia.

1. Terrorism and Non-State Actors

• The rise of terrorism, exemplified by the September 11 attacks, has highlighted vulnerabilities in state security and the challenges posed by non-state actors. This has led to a global focus on combating terrorism.
• Regions such as South Asia have experienced prolonged conflicts involving terrorist groups, complicating national and international security efforts.

1. Economic Disparities and Globalization

• The post-Cold War period has seen increased economic disparities, with globalization benefiting wealthy nations while leaving poorer nations in dire poverty. This disparity fosters instability and discontent.
• The establishment of institutions like the World Trade Organization has reinforced the dominance of developed nations, leading to calls for fairer trade practices.

1. Environmental and Non-Military Threats

• Issues such as climate change, resource scarcity, and environmental degradation are increasingly recognized as security threats that can destabilize regions and lead to conflict.
• The plight of small island nations facing submergence due to rising sea levels underscores the urgent need for international cooperation on environmental issues.

1. Ineffectiveness of International Organizations

• The United Nations and other international bodies have struggled with issues of autonomy, accountability, and effectiveness in addressing the complexities of post-Cold War challenges.
• There is a growing consensus on the need to restructure the UN to better respond to contemporary global issues, including security, development, and human rights.

Conclusion

The post-Cold War era presents a multifaceted set of challenges to international peace and security. The interplay of ethnic conflicts, shifting power dynamics, economic disparities, terrorism, and environmental threats requires a concerted effort for enhanced international cooperation and effective governance.

6. What is meant by intervention ? Describe three distinct varieties of intervention.

Understanding Intervention

Definition of Intervention

Intervention refers to actions taken by a state or international organization to influence or alter the situation in another state, often in response to conflicts, humanitarian crises, or violations of international law. These actions can be military, diplomatic, or humanitarian in nature.

Varieties of Intervention

Here are three distinct varieties of intervention:

1. Military Intervention: 

   – This type involves the use of armed forces to achieve specific objectives, such as restoring order, liberating territories, or enforcing international laws. 

   – Notable examples include the US-led military action in Kuwait during the Gulf War in 1991, which aimed to repel Iraqi forces and restore Kuwaiti sovereignty.

2. Humanitarian Intervention: 

   – This form of intervention focuses on providing aid to populations in distress due to conflicts, natural disasters, or humanitarian crises. 

   – A significant instance is the ongoing support provided by the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), which has aided over 30 million refugees since 1951, delivering essential services like food, shelter, and medical aid.

3. Economic Intervention: 

   – Economic interventions may involve sanctions, trade agreements, or financial assistance aimed at influencing a country’s policies or supporting its development. 

   – An example includes the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), which provides financial support to improve rural poverty and food security in developing countries, benefiting over 230 million people.

Additional Context

• The nature of conflicts has shifted since the Cold War, with a notable increase in intra-state conflicts, or civil wars, which now constitute about 90% of global conflicts. These often involve complex internal dynamics and can lead to severe humanitarian crises.
• The impact of globalization has also altered state authority, particularly in developing countries, where external financial dependencies can undermine local governance.

In summary, intervention can take various forms, each with its specific goals and methodologies, reflecting the complexities of international relations and humanitarian needs.

7. How is International terrorism different from cross-border terrorism ? Explain with examples.

Differences Between International Terrorism and Cross-Border Terrorism

Definition and Scope

International Terrorism refers to acts of violence that are designed to intimidate or coerce a population or government and are executed across national borders. This type of terrorism typically involves groups or individuals who operate in multiple countries and have transnational goals.

Cross-Border Terrorism, on the other hand, is a specific form of terrorism that occurs when terrorist activities are conducted by groups or individuals who cross the borders of a state to carry out their attacks. This form of terrorism often involves insurgents or armed groups targeting a neighboring country.

Key Differences

1. Operational Geography:

   – International Terrorism operates across multiple nations and can involve a global network of supporters and operatives.

   – Cross-Border Terrorism is confined to activities that directly impact the neighboring country, often originating from one state and targeting another.

2. Motivation and Objectives:

   – International Terrorism often has global ideological objectives, including political, religious, or social goals that resonate worldwide.

   – Cross-Border Terrorism may primarily focus on regional issues, such as ethnic conflicts or territorial disputes.

3. Examples:

   – International Terrorism: The September 11 attacks in the United States, orchestrated by Al-Qaeda, exemplify this type of terrorism as it involved a network that operated in multiple countries and aimed to instigate fear on a global scale.

   – Cross-Border Terrorism: The activities of groups like Lashkar-e-Taiba, which operate from Pakistan and carry out attacks in India, illustrate cross-border terrorism as it involves one country attacking another.

4. Impact:

   – International Terrorism can lead to widespread international ramifications, affecting global security policies and international relations.

   – Cross-Border Terrorism typically impacts bilateral relationships between neighboring states and can lead to localized military responses.

5. Legal and Political Response:

   – International Terrorism often leads to international coalitions and agreements to combat terrorism on a global scale.

   – Cross-Border Terrorism may result in targeted military actions or diplomatic negotiations between the involved states.

6. Support Networks:

   – International Terrorism usually relies on a complex web of global logistics, including funding from various countries and networks.

   – Cross-Border Terrorism may depend more on local recruitment and support from the immediate region.

7. Examples of Groups:

   – International Terrorist Groups: Al-Qaeda, ISIS, and Boko Haram.

   – Cross-Border Terrorist Groups: Hezbollah (operating from Lebanon into Israel), and various insurgent groups in the India-Pakistan border region.

8. Media Coverage:

   – International Terrorism often receives global media attention due to its wide-reaching impacts and implications.

   – Cross-Border Terrorism might receive more localized coverage, focusing on the affected nations and immediate consequences.

Conclusion

While both international and cross-border terrorism involve violent acts intended to instigate fear and achieve political objectives, they differ significantly in their scope, operational methods, and implications. Understanding these distinctions is crucial for effectively addressing and combating terrorism in its various forms.

8. Describe the current status of the U. S. in world hierarchy of power.

Current Status of the U.S. in World Hierarchy of Power

The current status of the United States in the global hierarchy of power reflects a complex interaction of competing interests and the emergence of new power centers. Below is an analysis of the U.S.’s position in this multi-polar world.

1. U.S. Power Dynamics

• The U.S. maintains significant influence but faces challenges from various global players, including the European Union (EU), Japan, and China, which are rising as counterweights to U.S. hegemony.
• The U.S. must often rely on persuasion rather than coercion to align its Western allies with its policies, indicating a shift from unilateralism to a more cooperative approach in international relations.
• Despite its predominant military and economic power, the U.S. is not immune to the checks and balances created by competing domestic interests, such as oil and Jewish interest groups, which moderate its hegemonic ambitions.

1. The Emergence of a Multi-Polar World

• The world is transitioning from a unipolar system dominated by the U.S. to a potential multi-polar system, where leadership is based on principles rather than sheer power.
• Emerging powers, often referred to as middle powers, are gaining influence and may offer alternative leadership styles based on persuasion rather than coercion, filling the gaps left by traditional powers.
• The decline of the absolute dominance of the U.S. is illustrated by its limited effectiveness in influencing conflicts, such as those in Israel-Palestine and Kashmir, where even small powers’ vital interests limit U.S. sway.

1. Economic and Military Standing

• The U.S. economy represents 31.2% of the global GDP, while its defense spending constitutes 36.3% of global military expenditures, underscoring its continued dominance in these areas.
• However, countries like China, with its rapid economic growth and pragmatic governance, are increasingly viewed as significant challengers to U.S. influence in the Asia-Pacific region.

1. Global Challenges and Responsibilities

• The U.S. faces numerous international crises, yet there is no overriding ideological challenge comparable to that of the Cold War, as competitors like China have adopted liberalization strategies.
• The U.S.’s position as the last remaining superpower is challenged by the need to adapt to a more interconnected global economy, where developed nations are exposed to the economic vulnerabilities of developing countries.

Conclusion

The United States remains a central player in the global hierarchy of power, characterized by significant economic and military capabilities. However, it must navigate a landscape marked by emerging powers and shifting alliances, indicating a move toward a more multipolar world where influence is shared rather than dominated by a single nation. 

Overall, while the U.S. retains substantial power, its hegemony is increasingly moderated by the rise of other global actors and the complexities of international relations in the 21st century.

9. What is meant by Diaspora ? How does it promote transnational movements ?

What is Meant by Diaspora?

Diaspora refers to the phenomenon of a population being dispersed from their original homeland to various parts of the world. This dispersion often occurs due to factors such as conflict, economic hardship, or the pursuit of better opportunities. Members of a diaspora typically maintain connections with their homeland through cultural practices, social networks, and economic ties.

Key Characteristics of Diaspora:

1. Cultural Retention: Diaspora communities often preserve their cultural identity, traditions, and languages despite living in foreign countries.
2. Transnational Networks: Members maintain relationships across borders, facilitating a sense of community that spans different countries.
3. Economic Contributions: Diaspora populations can contribute economically to their home countries through remittances and investments.
4. Political Engagement: Many diasporic groups engage politically with both their host and home countries, advocating for their rights and interests.
5. Social Mobility: Individuals in a diaspora often seek better opportunities for education and employment, enhancing their social mobility.
6. Family Reunification: Diaspora communities frequently focus on family reunification, fostering ties between generations across borders.
7. Global Influence: Diasporas can influence cultural and political dynamics in both their host and home countries through their transnational activities.
8. Identity Formation: The experience of living in a diaspora can lead to the development of hybrid identities that blend elements from both the original and host cultures.

How Does Diaspora Promote Transnational Movements?

Diaspora promotes transnational movements by facilitating the flow of people, ideas, and resources across borders. This movement is driven by several factors:

Mechanisms of Transnational Movement:

1. Economic Networks: Diasporas often create economic ties that encourage trade and investment between their host and home countries.
2. Cultural Exchange: The sharing of cultural practices and beliefs enriches both the diaspora and the local communities where they settle.
3. Political Advocacy: Diaspora groups often mobilize to advocate for political changes in their home countries, influencing policies and governance from abroad.
4. Migration Patterns: The presence of established diaspora communities can encourage further migration, as newcomers seek support and familiarity.
5. Humanitarian Aid: Diaspora populations may engage in humanitarian efforts, providing aid to their homeland during crises.
6. Educational Opportunities: Members of the diaspora often facilitate educational exchanges, promoting knowledge transfer between countries.
7. Social Networks: Social media and communication technologies enable stronger connections among diaspora members, enhancing their collective impact.
8. Identity and Belonging: The sense of belonging to a diaspora can motivate individuals to engage with issues affecting their homeland, fostering solidarity and action.
9. Civic Engagement: Diasporas frequently participate in civic activities in both their host and home countries, promoting democratic values and practices.
10. Crisis Response: In times of crisis, diaspora communities often mobilize quickly to provide support, demonstrating the resilience and interconnectedness of transnational networks.

Through these mechanisms, diasporas play a crucial role in shaping transnational movements, promoting interconnectedness among global communities.

10. Explain the term ‘Ethnicity’. Discuss the reasons for the increase in ethnic movements in post-war years.

Understanding Ethnicity and the Rise of Ethnic Movements in Post-War Years

Definition of Ethnicity

Ethnicity refers to a shared cultural identity that encompasses various factors such as language, religion, nationality, and shared history among a group of people. It often signifies a collective identity based on cultural heritage and social commonalities. Ethnic groups typically maintain distinct practices, beliefs, and traditions that differentiate them from other groups. 

The concept of ethnicity is intricately linked to nationalism and can significantly influence social dynamics. For instance, the language of nationalism often employs gendered terms, equating the nation with concepts of motherhood and family, which can reinforce traditional gender roles within ethnic identities.

Reasons for the Increase in Ethnic Movements in Post-War Years

The post-war period has seen a notable rise in ethnic movements driven by several key factors:

1. Decolonization: Many nations gained independence from colonial rule, leading to the assertion of ethnic identities previously suppressed under colonial administrations. The colonial legacy often left ethnic groups divided by arbitrary borders, prompting movements for recognition and self-determination.
2. State-Centric Security Concerns: The end of the Cold War shifted the focus from state-centric security to human security, allowing ethnic groups to mobilize around their identities in response to perceived threats from dominant groups.
3. Disintegration of Multi-Ethnic States: The breakup of states like the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia illustrated the fragility of multi-ethnic nations, leading to conflicts based on ethnic lines and encouraging movements aimed at asserting ethnic sovereignty.
4. Globalization: Increased global interconnectedness enabled ethnic groups to share their narratives and grievances more widely, fostering solidarity and support from diasporas across borders.
5. Identity Politics: The rise of identity politics has emphasized the importance of ethnic identity in political discourse, leading groups to organize and advocate for their rights and recognition within the larger political framework.
6. Cultural Revival: There has been a resurgence in cultural pride and the preservation of ethnic heritage, as communities seek to reclaim their histories and assert their identities in the face of globalization and homogenization.
7. Religious and Racial Intolerance: Growing religious and racial intolerance in various parts of the world has intensified ethnic movements as groups seek to protect their cultural and religious practices from discrimination and violence.
8. Economic Disparities: Economic inequalities often correlate with ethnic identities, leading marginalized groups to mobilize for equitable resource distribution and representation in governance.

These factors collectively contribute to the increasing visibility and activism of ethnic movements in the contemporary world, reflecting deeper societal changes and the ongoing quest for recognition and rights among diverse ethnic groups.

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