“MPS-002 JUNE 2024 COMPLETE Solved Previous Year Paper”

1. Examine the underlying assumptions of liberalization.

Underlying Assumptions of Liberalization

The concept of liberalization, particularly in the context of international relations and economic policies, is founded on several key assumptions. Here are the most pertinent points drawn from the relevant documents:

1. Individuals as Primary Actors

Liberals prioritize individuals as the primary actors in international relations. Progress is measured in terms of individual interests and well-being, suggesting that policies should enhance the capabilities and freedoms of individuals within the global system.

2. Belief in Interdependence

Liberalism posits that states are interconnected through economic and political ties. This interdependence fosters cooperation and reduces the likelihood of conflict, as nations become mutually reliant on one another for trade and resources.

3. Non-Coercive Cooperation

Unlike Realists, who believe that cooperation among states requires a dominant power, liberals advocate that cooperation can occur through non-coercive means, achieved via mutual interests and democratic processes.

4. Optimistic View of Human Progress

Liberals have a strong belief in the potential for human progress through modernization and rationality. They argue that scientific advancements and liberal values can lead to improvements in both moral character and material well-being.

5. Democratic Governance

A fundamental assumption is that democratic governance contributes to peace and stability. Liberals argue that democracies are less likely to go to war with one another, promoting the spread of democratic values as a means to achieve global peace.

6. Global Solutions for Global Problems

Globalists, a subset of liberal thought, assert that many of the challenges faced today—such as environmental degradation, terrorism, and pandemics—require global solutions, necessitating coordinated efforts across nations.

7. Importance of International Institutions

Liberals believe that international institutions play a crucial role in fostering cooperation and managing conflicts. These institutions help facilitate dialogue, set norms, and provide frameworks for states to engage with one another.

8. Economic Liberalization as a Pathway to Growth

The liberal approach often emphasizes the benefits of free trade and open markets, arguing that economic liberalization leads to overall growth and development. This belief is rooted in the idea that market mechanisms, when left unfettered, will allocate resources more efficiently.

9. Human Rationality and Knowledge Sharing

Liberals assert that increased knowledge and communication among states enhance their ability to cooperate. The belief in human rationality underpins the optimism that nations can understand and act upon their common interests.

10. Criticism of Neo-Liberalism

Despite the strong assumptions of liberalism, there are critiques regarding the practical application of neo-liberal policies. Critics argue that these policies often prioritize national interests over moral considerations, suggesting that the theoretical ideals of liberalism may not always reflect reality.

These assumptions provide a framework for understanding liberalization in both political and economic contexts, highlighting the interplay between individual agency, state cooperation, and the role of institutions in fostering global stability.

2. Justify India’s claim for permanent membership of the U. N. Security Council.

Justification for India’s Claim for Permanent Membership in the U.N. Security Council

India’s claim for permanent membership in the U.N. Security Council (UNSC) is supported by several key arguments that highlight the need for reform in the Council’s structure and representation. Below are the main justifications:

1. Historical Context and Membership Expansion

• The Security Council’s composition was established in 1945, reflecting the geopolitical realities of that time.
• Since then, the U.N. has expanded from 51 to 191 member states, yet the UNSC’s permanent membership has remained unchanged, creating an imbalance.
• There has been a minor increase in non-permanent members, but no significant change to the number of permanent seats, making the current structure unjustifiable in light of contemporary global dynamics.

1. Representation of Developing Countries

• The existing permanent members predominantly represent developed, industrialized nations, excluding significant developing countries.
• India, as a major developing nation from Asia, along with other countries like South Africa and Brazil, advocates for representation that reflects the current global economic landscape, which includes emerging powers.

1. Contributions to Global Governance

• India contributes significantly to U.N. peacekeeping missions, providing one of the largest contingents of troops, which underscores its commitment to international peace and security.
• India’s active role in global forums and its leadership in various international initiatives, such as climate change efforts, demonstrate its capability and responsibility as a potential permanent member.

1. Need for Transparency and Inclusiveness

• The current operations of the UNSC have faced criticism for a lack of transparency, particularly regarding closed-door consultations among permanent members.
• Expanding permanent membership to include countries like India would facilitate more inclusive decision-making processes, allowing for broader participation from non-member states in critical discussions.

1. Geopolitical Stability and Economic Growth

• Granting India permanent membership could enhance geopolitical stability in South Asia and beyond, given India’s strategic position and influence in the region.
• India’s growing economy and democratic governance model present a counterbalance to other powers and can contribute positively to global governance frameworks.

1. Support from Global Powers

• There is a growing consensus among various countries regarding the need for reform in the UNSC.
• Several nations, including key players in the current geopolitical landscape, have expressed support for India’s bid, acknowledging its potential role in ensuring a more balanced and representative Council.

Conclusion

India’s claim for permanent membership in the U.N. Security Council is justified by its historical context, significant contributions to global governance, and the need for enhanced representation of developing nations. As the international community continues to evolve, reforming the UNSC to include emerging powers like India is crucial for ensuring effective and inclusive global governance.

3. What are ‘middle powers’ ? How are they different from ‘emerging powers’ ? Explain

Understanding Middle Powers

Definition of Middle Powers

Middle powers are states that are not classified as great powers but have significant influence and capabilities in the international system. They play a critical role in international relations by promoting dialogue, coalition building, and consensus-driven diplomacy. Key characteristics of middle powers include:

1. Functional Powers: Middle powers possess specific resources and skills that allow them to contribute uniquely to international affairs, particularly in areas like peacekeeping and mediation.
2. Niche Diplomacy: They engage in diplomacy that leverages their strengths, often acting as mediators between larger powers and smaller nations.
3. Coalition Builders: Middle powers are adept at forming coalitions and are often seen as credible partners in international negotiations.
4. Stabilizers of the International System: They can mitigate the unilateral tendencies of great powers, promoting a more balanced international order.
5. Comparative Advantages: Their capabilities may vary, allowing them to have specialized roles in specific global issues.
6. Not Defined by Size: A middle power can be similar in size or military capability to a great power but differs in its approach to international relations.

Middle powers include countries such as Canada, Australia, and South Africa, which often leverage their unique positions to influence global events and policies effectively.

Differences Between Middle Powers and Emerging Powers

Definition of Emerging Powers

Emerging powers are states that are gaining influence and capabilities in the international arena, often transitioning from developing to developed status. They are characterized by:

1. Economic Growth: Emerging powers typically display rapid economic development and increasing political influence on the global stage.
2. Global Influence: They are not only focused on regional issues but also seek to have a voice in global governance.
3. Dynamic Roles: Emerging powers often adopt innovative diplomatic strategies and adapt to changing global challenges, filling leadership voids.
4. Shift in International Relations: The rise of these powers is contributing to a multipolar world, challenging the dominance of established great powers like the US and EU.
5. Varying Characteristics: Emerging powers can exhibit traits of middle powers but also demonstrate a broader range of capabilities and aspirations on the world stage.

Countries such as China, India, and Brazil are often classified as emerging powers due to their significant economic growth and increasing roles in global affairs.

Key Differences

1. Stage of Development: Middle powers may already be established in the international system, while emerging powers are in a transition phase.
2. Scope of Influence: Middle powers traditionally focus more on coalition-building and stability, whereas emerging powers often pursue more assertive global influence.
3. Diplomatic Strategies: Middle powers employ niche diplomacy; emerging powers may adopt more aggressive strategies to establish their presence.
4. Historical Context: Middle powers have a more stable historical role in international relations, while emerging powers are still defining their positions.

In summary, while both middle powers and emerging powers play significant roles in international politics, they differ in their development stages, influence, and diplomatic approaches.

4. What is meant by ‘Globalization’ ? On what basis the process of globalization is supported and criticised ? 

Understanding Globalization

Definition of Globalization

Globalization refers to the process that leads to increased interconnectedness and interdependence among countries, affecting various spheres such as economics, politics, and culture. It involves the diminishing distinctions between domestic and international affairs, where nation-states share the global stage with various actors including transnational corporations, NGOs, and regional organizations. This interconnected world fosters the movement of people, goods, services, ideas, and information across borders, making national boundaries more permeable.

Support for Globalization

Proponents of globalization highlight several benefits:

1. Promotes World Peace: Advocates argue that globalization can lead to greater understanding and cooperation between nations, reducing the likelihood of conflicts.
2. Enhances Human Security: It is believed to contribute positively to safety and security on a global scale.
3. Economic Well-being: Supporters claim that globalization stimulates economic growth by providing access to larger markets, encouraging trade, and increasing investment opportunities.
4. Cultural Exchange: Globalization facilitates the exchange of cultural values and ideas, enriching societies worldwide.
5. Technological Advancements: The process accelerates the spread of technology, improving living standards in both developed and developing countries.

Criticism of Globalization

Critics of globalization raise several concerns:

1. Threat to Democracy: There are claims that globalization undermines democratic processes by prioritizing corporate interests over public welfare.
2. Erosion of National Sovereignty: Critics argue that globalization compromises the authority of nation-states, making them subordinate to global markets and foreign corporations.
3. Cultural Homogenization: Many fear that globalization leads to a loss of local cultures and identities, as global norms dominate.
4. Economic Exploitation: Globalization is seen as benefiting developed countries at the expense of developing nations, perpetuating economic inequalities.
5. Increased Interdependence Risks: The interconnectedness can lead to vulnerabilities, where economic crises in one region can affect global stability.

Summary

Globalization is a multifaceted process that reshapes international relations by enhancing connectivity and interdependence among nations. While it is supported for its potential to foster peace, security, and economic growth, it is also criticized for its adverse effects on democracy, national sovereignty, and cultural identities. The debate surrounding globalization continues to evolve, reflecting the complex realities of a globally interconnected world.

5. What implications the New World Order has for developing countries like India ? 

Implications of the New World Order for Developing Countries like India

Overview of the New World Order

The New World Order refers to the significant shifts in international relations following the end of the Cold War. This transition has led to a multi-polar world where the dominance of the United States is contested by emerging powers such as the European Union and China. The implications for developing countries, particularly India, are profound and multifaceted.

Key Implications for India

1. Shift from Non-Alignment: The end of the Soviet bloc has rendered the policy of non-alignment largely irrelevant. India can no longer rely on Soviet support, and its diplomatic initiatives must now focus on economic and military strength rather than historical alliances.
2. Limited Room for Maneuver: The geopolitical landscape provides less room for India’s maneuvering. With diminished support from Russia, India must navigate international relations based on its economic and military capabilities.
3. Economic Dependency: The New World Order emphasizes the intensification of dependency relationships. India faces increased pressure to align its economic policies with Western models, which may lead to reliance on foreign investment and resources.
4. Options for Development:

   – Client State Model: India might consider becoming a client state of the US, adopting Western economic policies that prioritize consumerism and private enterprise.

   – Self-Reliance Approach: Alternatively, India can pursue a path of self-reliance, focusing on decentralized power and egalitarian development that caters to its population’s needs.

   – Hybrid Strategy: India has the option to combine elements of both approaches, advocating for its interests while building coalitions with other developing nations facing similar challenges.

5. Influence in Global Governance: India has opportunities to influence global governance structures from both within and outside. This includes leveraging relationships with Non-Resident Indians (NRIs) and multinational corporations (MNCs) to assert its position on critical issues.
6. Security Concerns: India’s national security interests, particularly regarding regional conflicts like Kashmir and counter-terrorism, remain a priority. The New World Order necessitates a reevaluation of military strategies in light of changing global dynamics.
7. Evolving Political Landscape: The political landscape is shifting, demanding that India adapt its strategies to maintain relevance and leadership among developing nations. This includes reassessing its historical approaches, such as socialism, in favor of more pragmatic solutions.
8. Challenges to Sovereignty: The New World Order introduces challenges to the sovereignty of nation-states, as global power dynamics increasingly influence domestic policies and governance structures.

Conclusion

The implications of the New World Order for India and similar developing countries are significant. While there are challenges, there are also opportunities for India to redefine its role on the global stage through strategic decision-making, coalition-building, and an emphasis on self-reliance and national interests. As the international landscape continues to evolve, India must navigate these complexities to safeguard its sovereignty and promote sustainable development.

6. Critically examine the role of technology in the evolution of the International System.

The Role of Technology in the Evolution of the International System

Impact of Technology on International Relations

1. Communication Technologies: Advances in information technology have dramatically transformed global communication, influencing international relations by facilitating faster and more widespread dissemination of information. This allows for real-time updates and coordination among nations.
2. Economic Changes: Technology has reshaped world economic activities, enabling processes that were previously inconceivable. For example, global supply chains and e-commerce have emerged due to technological advancements, altering trade dynamics and economic interdependence among countries.
3. Social Dynamics: The rise of global communication networks has allowed ideas, information, and cultural values to transcend national boundaries, leading to new social dynamics. This interconnectedness can foster global movements and shared values but may also challenge local cultures and traditions.
4. Security Dimensions: The post-Cold War era has seen a shift in security perceptions, where traditional military threats are now complemented by non-traditional threats such as cyber warfare and terrorism, heavily influenced by technological capabilities.
5. Information Warfare: The evolution of technology has given rise to new forms of conflict, such as information warfare, where states or non-state actors manipulate information to achieve political ends, affecting international stability.
6. International Organizations: Technological changes have challenged the effectiveness and autonomy of international organizations like the United Nations. As states and non-state actors leverage technology for their interests, the traditional roles of these organizations are being redefined.
7. Globalization: Technology is a crucial driver of globalization, leading to increased interconnections between markets and cultures. This dual-natured phenomenon brings economic growth while also undermining state sovereignty and local traditions.
8. Environmental and Humanitarian Issues: Technology plays a significant role in addressing global challenges such as climate change and humanitarian crises. Advanced technologies can enhance response capabilities but also create disparities in access and effectiveness across different countries.

Conclusion

Technology has been a pivotal force in the evolution of the international system, driving changes in communication, economy, security, and social dynamics. While it presents opportunities for cooperation and development, it also poses challenges that require new frameworks for international governance and cooperation to address the complexities of a changing world. 

The implications of these technological advancements are profound, necessitating a reevaluation of how states interact and cooperate within the global system.

7. Discuss and assess the emergence of China as a ‘Super Power’ in world politics.

Emergence of China as a Super Power in World Politics

Overview of China’s Rise

China’s emergence as a superpower is characterized by its significant economic growth, strategic foreign policy, and increasing global influence. Historically, China has sought recognition as a great power, particularly after being excluded from the League of Nations for a substantial period, which shaped its assertive stance in international relations. Unlike many middle powers that often adopt multilateralist approaches, China has pursued a more independent and sometimes defiant foreign policy aimed at establishing its dominance globally.

Economic Growth and Influence

1. Rapid Economic Development: Since the late 20th century, China’s economy has transformed into one of the largest in the world, making it a key player in global trade and investment.
2. Liberalization Policy: The Chinese Communist leadership has embraced economic liberalization while maintaining strict political control, differentiating it from Western ideologies.
3. Trade Partnerships: China has developed extensive trade relationships across Asia and beyond, enhancing its economic influence on regional economies.
4. Belt and Road Initiative: This initiative aims to improve infrastructure and trade connectivity across Asia, Europe, and Africa, further solidifying China’s role as a global economic leader.
5. Investment in Technology: China is increasingly investing in technology sectors, positioning itself as a leader in innovation and technology manufacturing.
6. Resource Acquisition: China’s focus on securing resources globally has led to significant investments in countries rich in natural resources, impacting global markets.
7. Economic Competitiveness: China is viewed as a major competitor to the U.S. and other economies such as Germany and Japan, posing a challenge to American economic hegemony.
8. Rising Middle Class: The growth of China’s middle class has increased domestic consumption, further driving the economy and enhancing its global market presence.

Political and Strategic Dimensions

1. Shift from Ideological Conflict: China no longer presents an ideological challenge to the U.S. but instead focuses on pragmatic economic interests and partnerships.
2. Multilateral Engagement: Although often viewed as a middle power, China has increasingly taken on roles that assert its influence, such as participating in international organizations and peacekeeping missions.
3. Geopolitical Influence in Asia-Pacific: China’s strategic initiatives are reshaping the power dynamics in the Asia-Pacific region, leading to a reordering of alliances and influence.
4. Military Modernization: Significant investments in military capabilities reflect China’s intent to project power and protect its interests globally.
5. Bilateral Relations: China has formed strategic partnerships with various countries, enhancing its geopolitical footprint.
6. Focus on Soft Power: China has also invested in cultural diplomacy and soft power initiatives to improve its global image and influence.
7. Non-State Actors: The emergence of non-state actors and middle powers in the international arena is reshaping China’s approach to global leadership.
8. Challenges to U.S. Hegemony: As China rises, the traditional dominance of the U.S. is being challenged, potentially leading to a more multipolar world order.

Conclusion

China’s ascendance as a superpower is marked by its economic prowess, strategic foreign policy, and enhanced global influence. This transformation is reshaping international relations and posing new challenges to existing power structures, particularly that of the United States. As the global landscape continues to evolve, China’s role will remain pivotal in determining the future of world politics.

8. Describe the evolution of the nuclear nonproliferation regime.

Evolution of the Nuclear Nonproliferation Regime

The evolution of the nuclear nonproliferation regime has been marked by a series of significant treaties and initiatives aimed at preventing the spread of nuclear weapons and promoting disarmament. Below is an overview of key milestones in this evolution.

Key Treaties and Agreements

1. Treaty of Tlatelolco (1967): Prohibited nuclear weapons in Latin America, establishing the first nuclear-weapon-free zone.
2. Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) (1968): A landmark treaty where nuclear-armed states (UK, USA, USSR) pledged not to transfer nuclear weapons or technology to non-nuclear states, which in return agreed not to acquire them.
3. Sea-Bed Treaty (1971): Banned the placement of nuclear weapons on the ocean floor.
4. Biological Weapons Convention (1972): Prohibited the development, production, and stockpiling of biological and toxin weapons.
5. Convention on Environmental Modification Techniques (1979): Prevented the military or hostile use of environmental modification techniques.
6. Moon Agreement (1979): Governed the activities of states on the Moon and other celestial bodies, promoting peaceful exploration.
7. South Pacific Nuclear Free Zone Treaty (1985): Established a nuclear-free zone in the South Pacific.
8. Chemical Weapons Convention (1993): Banned the development, production, and stockpiling of chemical weapons, establishing a verification regime.
9. Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (1996): Aimed to ban all nuclear explosions, although it has not yet entered into force due to lack of ratification by key states.
10. Ottawa Treaty (1997): Prohibited the use, production, and transfer of landmines, reflecting broader disarmament efforts.

Initiatives and Global Movements

• Disarmament Decade (1970s): Proclaimed by the UN General Assembly, focusing on nuclear disarmament and arms control.
• UN Special Sessions on Disarmament (1978): Marked a turning point by making disarmament a dominant topic within the UN.
• Challenges from Non-Signatory States: Countries like India and Pakistan have raised concerns about the NPT’s discriminatory nature, arguing it allows existing nuclear powers to maintain their arsenals while limiting other states.
• Post-Cold War Developments: The end of the Cold War opened new avenues for disarmament discussions, though tensions remain with countries like the US withdrawing from key agreements such as the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty.
• Recent Efforts: The international community continues to seek comprehensive approaches to nuclear disarmament, including initiatives to address small arms and terrorism.

The nuclear nonproliferation regime has evolved through a complex interplay of treaties, international cooperation, and ongoing challenges posed by geopolitical realities. Each treaty and initiative reflects the global commitment to reducing the dangers posed by nuclear weapons while addressing the concerns of both nuclear and non-nuclear states alike.

9. Describe the functions and role of the International Bank of Reconstruction and Development (IBRD).

Functions and Role of the International Bank of Reconstruction and Development (IBRD)

The International Bank of Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) plays a crucial role in global economic development. Below are the key functions and roles of the IBRD:

Key Functions of the IBRD

1. Lending for Development Projects: The IBRD provides loans primarily for development projects in middle-income and creditworthy low-income countries. These projects often focus on infrastructure, education, and health.
2. Financial Intermediary: The IBRD acts as a financial intermediary, raising funds through the issuance of bonds in the international capital markets and lending these funds to developing countries.
3. Technical Assistance: The bank offers technical expertise and policy advice to help countries design and implement effective development projects.
4. Capacity Building: It assists countries in strengthening their institutional capacity to manage development processes effectively, ensuring sustainable outcomes.
5. Promoting Economic Growth: The IBRD aims to foster economic growth by financing projects that enhance productivity and create jobs.
6. Combating Poverty: The IBRD focuses on reducing poverty and improving living standards by financing projects that target the most vulnerable populations.
7. Facilitating International Cooperation: The IBRD promotes international cooperation by facilitating partnerships between countries, organizations, and private sector stakeholders.
8. Research and Data Collection: The bank conducts research and collects data on economic development issues, which informs its lending policies and project design.
9. Crisis Response: The IBRD provides emergency financing during crises, helping countries stabilize their economies and recover from shocks.
10. Encouraging Private Investment: By providing a stable lending environment, the IBRD encourages private sector investment in development projects.

Role in Global Development

1. Support for Global Initiatives: The IBRD contributes to global initiatives aimed at achieving sustainable development goals (SDGs) and addressing challenges such as climate change and health crises.
2. Partnerships with Other Institutions: It collaborates with various international organizations, including the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and regional development banks, to align efforts in development finance.
3. Policy Formulation: The IBRD plays a significant role in formulating economic policies that promote development and reduce inequalities among nations.
4. Monitoring and Evaluation: The bank monitors the outcomes of its projects and evaluates their impact to ensure accountability and effectiveness in achieving development goals.
5. Capacity to Mobilize Resources: With its ability to raise substantial funds, the IBRD is a critical source of financing for development, particularly in times of global economic uncertainty.
6. Advocacy for Development Issues: The IBRD advocates for policies that foster development and address global challenges, influencing international discourse on economic issues.
7. Focus on Inclusivity: The bank emphasizes inclusive development, ensuring that the benefits of growth are shared among all segments of society.
8. Sustainability Commitment: The IBRD incorporates environmental sustainability into its projects, aiming to mitigate negative impacts and promote sustainable practices.
9. Crisis Management: It plays a vital role in managing financial crises in countries through timely financial assistance and advice.
10. Strengthening Global Financial Stability: By providing financial support and promoting sound economic policies, the IBRD contributes to global financial stability.

In summary, the IBRD functions as a key player in international development by providing financial resources, technical assistance, and promoting sustainable economic growth, ultimately aiming to reduce poverty and improve living standards in developing countries.

10. Examine the linkages between Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) and Portfolio Investment

Linkages Between Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) and Portfolio Investment

Overview of FDI and Portfolio Investment

Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) and portfolio investment are two critical components of international finance, each with distinct characteristics and roles. 

• FDI involves a significant equity stake (typically 10% or more) in a foreign enterprise, indicating a lasting interest and degree of control over management. Examples include building plants or acquiring controlling shares in foreign companies.
• Portfolio Investment, on the other hand, usually entails purchasing shares or bonds without exerting control over the company. This type of investment has a shorter investment horizon and focuses on financial returns rather than management involvement.

Key Linkages Between FDI and Portfolio Investment

The relationship between FDI and portfolio investment is nuanced, with several important linkages:

1. Investment Horizon: Portfolio investments often have a shorter duration compared to FDI, which usually involves a long-term commitment.
2. Control and Management: FDI investors typically maintain control over their investments, while portfolio investors do not engage in management decisions.
3. Economic Impact: Both types of investment influence the host country’s economy, but FDI tends to have a more direct impact on production and income generation, while portfolio investments primarily affect financial markets.
4. Market Development: The growth of stock markets can attract portfolio investments, which may also signal the viability of a market for potential FDI.
5. Cross-Border Mergers and Acquisitions (M&A): These transactions can be classified as either FDI or portfolio investment, depending on the equity stake involved. M&As often establish significant management interests, aligning them closely with FDI.
6. Venture Capital: This form of investment often blurs the lines between FDI and portfolio investment, as venture capitalists may take active roles in managing the companies they invest in, similar to FDI investors.
7. Financial Institutions: Portfolio investors are frequently financial institutions that seek returns on their investments, whereas FDI is typically pursued by firms engaged in producing goods and services.
8. Economic Conditions: Changes in economic conditions and regulatory environments can affect the flow of both FDI and portfolio investments, as investors seek favorable conditions for their capital.

Conclusion

The interplay between FDI and portfolio investment is characterized by differences in control, investment duration, and economic impact, while also sharing commonalities in market influence and investment behavior. Understanding these linkages is crucial for policymakers and investors alike, as they navigate the complexities of global financial markets and investment strategies.

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